“We are beckoned to see the world through a one-way mirror, as if we are threatened and innocent and the rest of humanity is threatening, or wretched, or expendable. Our memory is struggling to rescue the truth that human rights were not handed down as privileges from a parliament, or a boardroom, or an institution, but that peace is only possible with justice and with information that gives us the power to act justly.”
John Pilger

Sunday, November 24, 2013

Do Muslim Women Need Saving? - Lila Abu-Lughod

Anthropologist Lila Abu-Lughod analyzes the rise of a pervasive literary trope in the West—that of the abused Muslim girl.

The Daily Beast – Women in the World – October 22, 2013

This book seeks answers to the questions that presented themselves to me with such force after 9/11 when popular concern about Muslim women’s rights took off. As an anthropologist who had spent decades living in communities in the Middle East, I was uncomfortable with disjunction between the lives and experiences of Muslim women I had known and the popular media representations I encountered in the Western public sphere, the politically motivated justifications for military intervention on behalf of Muslim women that became common sense, and even the well-meaning humanitarian and rights work intended to relieve global women’s suffering. What worldly effects were these concerns having on different women? And how might we take responsibility for distant women’s circumstances and possibilities in what is clearly an interconnected global world, instead of viewing them as victims of alien cultures? This book is about the ethics and politics of the global circulation of discourses on Muslim women’s rights.

Primed for Moral Crusades

To understand why the new common sense about going to war for women’s rights seems so right despite the flaws I have laid out—whether its reliance on the myth of a homogeneous place called IslamLand or its selective and moralizing imperative to save others far away—we need to look sideways. Two other popular ways of talking about violations of women’s rights that have emerged in the past few decades lend support to the kinds of representations of women’s suffering that writers like these present. On one side is a political and moral enterprise with tremendous legitimacy in our era: international human rights. Women’s rights language and the institutional apparatus that has developed in tandem have been associated with human rights since the 1990s: feminists began to campaign with the slogan “women’s rights are human rights.” Their successes have led some in legal studies to detect the emergence of governance feminism (GF), the domination by radical feminists of legal, bureaucratic, and political institutions around the world. At the center of this set of institutions is a claim to universal values.

To read more...

Sunday, November 17, 2013

A Classic on Human Rights Literature: Globalizing Democracy and Human Rights By Carol C. Gould

Globalizing Democracy and Human Rights

By Carol C. Gould

Cambridge University Press - 2004


Carol Gould addresses the fundamental issue of democratizing globalization, or finding ways to open transnational institutions and communities to democratic participation by those widely affected by their decisions. Gould develops a framework for expanding participation in cross-border decisions, arguing for a broader understanding of human rights. In addition, she introduces a new role for the ideas of care and solidarity at a distance. Her accessible text will be a major new contribution to political philosophy.


Introduction: between the personal and the global
Part I. Theoretical Considerations:
1. Hard questions in democratic theory: when justice and democracy conflict
2. Two concepts of universality and the problem of cultural relativism
Part II. Democracy and Rights, Personalized and Pluralized:
3. Embodied politics
4. Racism and democracy
5. Cultural identity, group rights, and social ontology
6. Conceptualizing women's human rights
Part III. Globalizing Democracy in a Human Rights Framework:
7. Evaluating the claims for a global democracy
8. Are democracy and human rights compatible in the context of globalization?
9. The global democratic deficit and economic human rights
Part IV. Current Applications:
10. Democratic management and the stakeholder idea
11. Democratic networks: technological and political
12. Terrorism, empathy, and democracy

U.S. National Human Rights Institution: A Bad Idea

By Steven Groves

The Heritage Foundation - November 15, 2013

Abstract
Human rights activists have called for creation of a U.S. National Human Rights Institution (NHRI) to promote and monitor implementation of international human rights treaties, norms, and standards in the United States. Yet any violation of human rights as such rights are understood in the U.S. legal system is already justiciable in U.S. courts. Instead, activists would use a U.S. NHRI to promote economic, social, and cultural “rights” that lack constitutional or legal foundation and have been rejected for decades by the U.S. Supreme Court. Congress should reject any attempt to create a U.S. NHRI or expand the mandate of the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights to include the enforcement of human rights.
For several years elements of the international human rights community have advocated that the United States should establish a National Human Rights Institution (NHRI) to promote and monitor implementation of international human rights treaties, norms, and standards in the United States. However, creating a NHRI is a bad idea.
Human rights activists would use a NHRI to advocate for recognition of supra-constitutional human rights norms that the U.S. has chosen not to recognize and find no support under the law. The NHRI’s central mission would be to promote economic, social, and cultural (ESC) “rights” that lack constitutional or legal foundation and have been rejected for decades by the U.S. Supreme Court and Congress. The NHRI would serve as a platform to harass U.S. business and industry with subpoenas, investigations, and show hearings for allegedly violating such “human rights” as the “right to a healthy environment” and the “right to water.”

To read more...

Digital Citizen is a monthly review of news, policy, and research on human rights and technology in the Arab World.


Morocco
Over the past few years, Morocco has made strides increasing Internet access for its citizens and scaling back online censorship. The Feb20 movement—Morocco’s answer to the Arab Spring—operated for the most part freely online. More recently, Moroccans enraged by the King’s pardon of a convicted pedophile mounted an unprecedented online campaign—dubbed #DanielGate—ultimately resulted in rescinding the pardon.
But recent events in the country threaten that progress. On September 17, Ali Anouzla—the co-founder and Arabic-language editor of a popular online publication, Lakome—was arrested after publishing an article that mentioned a YouTube video attributed to Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM). Titled “Morocco: Kingdom of Corruption and Despotism,” the video was critical of Moroccan King Mohammed VI. Reporters Without Borders quoted the local public prosecutor as saying that Anouzla was arrested “as a result of the dissemination of an AQIM video inciting others to commit terrorism acts.” In fact, Anouzla’s article did not endorse the video in anyway, and only linked to an article in Spanish paper El Pais which contained a link to the original video. After being held for a little over a week, Anouzla was charged on September 25 with “material assistance” to a terrorist group, “defending terrorism,” and “inciting the execution of terrorist acts.”

How Technology Is Helping Us Better Protect Human Rights

By  Samir Goswami

The Huffington Post - 11/11/2013

For social justice activists, the speed with which news now crosses the globe creates a tremendous opportunity to respond to human rights issues as they emerge. We can now find out about and alert the world to abuses almost as they happen, and people can act immediately to support human rights defenders and others on the front lines of crises.

However, the sheer number of people who struggle for the most basic human rights can be overwhelming. Although it is easy to get dismayed, we must stay heartened that we can make a difference in an individual's life even from thousands of miles away.

It is vital that activists who are concerned about abuses outside of their own country continue to fight not just for human rights issues -- but for the individuals behind those issues. The issues that concern us -- whether violence against women, crackdowns on freedom of expression or assembly, corporate accountability or LGBTI rights -- are brought to our attention because of the individuals on the ground who are courageously, and with much risk, advocating for change in their community. Individuals such as Mansour Ossanlu, who was imprisoned and tortured for organizing workers in Iran, Norma Cruz, who is struggling against gender-based violence in Guatemala, and Jenni Williams, who has been arrested more than 50 times for fighting for social and political rights in Zimbabwe.

To read more...

HRP hosts symposium on civilian harm caused by armed conflict


Kenneth Rutherford was working as a humanitarian aid worker in Somalia in 1993. He was driving with a colleague through a rural area near the city of Mogadishu on a clear, blue day when his vehicle hit a landmine. The explosion tore through the vehicle.
Rutherford looked to his colleague to his right, who was black, and saw that he had been turned white because he was covered in dust from the explosion. Rutherford's legs were so badly damaged that both would later have to be amputated below the knee.
"I was on my deathbed on the rocky, hard, Somali ground," Rutherford recounted for a Harvard Law School audience last week. "Blood was running down both of the backs of my legs, blood was coming out of my mouth and onto my shirt."
But he did not despair.
"I can still smell and taste my own blood, standing before you right now. But in my heart, I remember like yesterday, I was blazing with the munificent power of gratitude for everything that life has given me," Rutherford said. "I never miss an opportunity to praise God for being above ground."

To read more...

The demise of international criminal law

By Mark Osiel   

Humanity - 11/16/13

We theorists of international law like to pose venturesome, vitalizing questions, sweeping in scope: What would an ideal system of international criminal law look like, for instance, relieved of today’s geostrategic constraints? How might we lend some conceptual coherence to such a program, flesh out its normative details? What kind of world would be required for such a program to become possible, even intelligible? How should we imagine the workings of such a hypothetical world?
If we allow ourselves to descend beneath the clouds for a moment, we may also ask: Precisely how far from that ideal world do we currently reside? How might we realistically begin to construct its preconditions, through what process, by which concrete steps? We might further approach the process social-scientifically, identifying the forces which would set it in motion, hypothesizing the coalition-composition that could advance it and, when unavoidable, devise its prudent tactical retreat. Among the available accounts of global change and theories of institutional design, which of these might give us a better lever on the process, help nudge it along? These are laudable questions, especially the later, more “reality-based,” reflecting at least a bow toward “non-ideal theory,” in that philosopher’s condescending term of art.

To read more...

New directions in Southern human rights funding

Christopher Harris
Open Democracy -14 November 2013

The next generation of foundations in the Global South will likely be the vanguard of experimentation and learning. A look across the current funding landscape for human rights and justice in the Global South suggests reason for both disappointment and for optimism. For the sake of this review, I put aside official government aid—there is plenty there to discuss—and only look at the smaller world of private philanthropic giving.
Most past criticisms of foundation support for human rights and justice are still relevant. These critiques—apart from the very real problem of simply not enough money—include concern over weak funder strategies, timidity, short attention span, evaluation fetish, poor or no accountability and the absence of centres of research and learning committed to funding rights and justice.
Most funders who express concern about poverty, injustice and the abuse of human rights still employ strategies that that can be described as ‘charity’—funding the provision of services to reduce suffering or an immediate injustice. Although these are important if you are the victim, these strategies are silent on the causes of injustice, and leave them untouched. As a result, charitable approaches rarely deal with the frequently invisible structural sources of injustice, be they legal, economic, political or cultural.

To read more...

Thursday, November 14, 2013

Universal values, foreign money: local human rights organizations in the Global South

James Ron and Archana Pandya

Open Democracy - 13 November 2013

How important is international funding to local human rights groups worldwide? Oddly enough, there has been little published research on the topic. Pressured by angry nationalists and vengeful governments, human rights activists and donors prefer to keep money questions out of the spotlight.
Indeed, we know of only two existing studies. In 2006, a Nigerian scholar published research on 20 of his country’s 100 human rights groups, the vast majority of which were foreign-supported. Two years later, Israeli researchers published a study based on interviews with 16 of the country’s 26 human rights groups, and said that more than 90 percent of their budgets came from Europe and the United States. Neither study, however, shed light on conditions elsewhere in the world.
To rectify this gap, we began by interviewing 128 human rights workers from 60 countries in the Global South and former Communist region. Then we assembled lists of all the local rights groups we could find in Rabat and Casablanca (Morocco), Mumbai (India), and Mexico City and San CristĆ³bal de las Casas (Mexico). Our team identified 189 groups in total, all of which were non-governmental, domestically headquartered, politically unaffiliated, and legally registered. 

To read more....

Call For Papers: Organizing a panel - ISA Human Rights Joint Conference June 16-19, 2014, Istanbul, Turkey

Proposed Title: Critical Perspectives towards Human Rights 

ISA Human Rights Joint Conference 2014, Istanbul, Turkey
http://www.isanet.org/Conferences/HRIstanbul2014.aspx

Dear all,

The International Studies Association-Human Rights is holding a joint conference in collaboration with IPSA, APSA and the Standing Group on Human Rights and Transition and ECPR; this is the third joint international conference on human rights, on the theme of  “Human Rights and Change.” It will take place on 16-18 June 2014 at Kadir Has Ɯniversitesi (http://www.khas.edu.tr/en/) in Istanbul. I am in the process of writing an article on Orientalism and Human Rights, which is part of a larger book project.

If you are interested in participating in forming a panel together on Critical Perspectives towards Human Rights (this is a tentative title, we can change it after further discussion), please let me know off the list. I know this is short notice, and the deadline is the December 1st. For this conference, you need to be a member of the International Studies Association. I welcome submissions related to, but not limited to the following
subjects:

-Critical Perspectives towards Human Rights
-Human Rights Industry and New Missionaries: AI, HRW, USIP, NED, etc. 
-State actors and the Human Rights Industry
-Local actors (NGOs and think-tanks) and the Human Rights Industry
-Political Economy and Human Rights
-Democracy Promotion and Human Rights
-Regional (Middle East, Africa, Latin America and Asia) Implications of Human Rights Policies

Please check the following books and articles before you submit a proposal:

Bricmont, Jean.  2006. Humanitarian Imperialism: Using Human Rights to Sell War. Montly Review Press. http://monthlyreview.org/press/books/pb1471/
Judith Blau and Mark Frezzo, 2011. Sociology and Human Rights: A Bill of Rights for the Twenty-First Century http://www.sagepub.com/books/Book235439
End human rights imperialism now http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2010/dec/31/human-rights-imperialism-james-hoge
Amnesty International and the Human Rights Industry http://www.counterpunch.org/2012/11/08/amnesty-international-and-the-human-rights-industry/
Human Rights as Myth and Ceremony? Reevaluating the Effectiveness of Human Rights Treaties, 1981–2007 Author(s): Wade M. Cole Source: American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 117, No. 4 (January 2012), pp. 1131-1171.
Imperialism, Human Rights, and Protectionism http://www.zcommunications.org/imperialism-human-rights-and-protectionism-by-robin-hahnel.html
Imperialist feminism redux. Saadia Toor. Dialect Anthropol. October 2012.
Globalization, the world system, and "democracy promotion" in U.S. foreign policy WILLIAM I. ROBINSON.Theory and Society 25:615-665, 1996. 

Email me the following information by Monday, November 25, be sure you are a member of ISA: http://www.isanet.org/Membership.aspx 

-abstract, 300 words
-title of your paper
-your short bio, 100-150 words, including your institutional affiliation, email, etc.

Any questions or suggestions are welcome.

Please also check the website for updates: http://sociologyofhumanrights.org/  

Best to all,

--
Tugrul Keskin

Assistant Professor of International and Middle Eastern Studies
Affiliated Faculty of Black Studies
Sociology and Center for Turkish Studies
Middle East Studies Coordinator (INTL)
Portland State University

Sociology of Human Rights and International Studies Course Readings


Sociology of Human Rights:
International Studies, Neo-Orientalism and Human Rights
INTL 407

Required Books:
This course will use sections from the following books and articles:

1.     Donnelly, Jack. 2012. International Human Rights. Westview Press.
2.     Bricmont, Jean.  2006. Humanitarian Imperialism: Using Human Rights to Sell War. Montly Review Press. http://monthlyreview.org/press/books/pb1471/

3.     Judith Blau and Mark Frezzo, 2011. Sociology and Human Rights: A Bill of Rights for the Twenty-First Century http://www.sagepub.com/books/Book235439

4.     RESOURCE BOOK: Hayden, Patrick. 1999. Philosophy of Human Rights: Readings in Context. Paragon House. http://www.paragonhouse.com/Philosophy-of-Human-Rights-Readings-in-Context.html

Other Readings will be posted on the D2L and you will find them under the course documents.

Recommended Additional Readings:
1.     Ishay, Micheline (2008). The History of Human Rights: From Ancient Times to the Globalization Era. University of California Press. http://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520256415
2.     Ishay, Micheline (ed) 2008 The Human Rights Reader 2nd ed. Routledge Press.
3.     Ignatieff, Michael (2003). Human Rights as Politics and Idolatry. Princeton University Press. http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7119.html   
4.     Goodale, Mark (2008). Human Rights: An Anthropological Reader. Wiley-Blackwell. http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-1405183357.html  
5.     Beitz, Charles R. (2009). The Idea of Human Rights. Oxford University Press.
6.     Moyn, Samuel (2012). The Last Utopia: Human Rights in History. Harvard University Press. http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674048720  
7.     Griffin, James (2008). On Human Rights. Oxford University Press.
8.     Mayer, A.E. (1995) Islam and Human Rights: Traditions and Politics. 2 ed, Boulder: Westview.
9.     Goodhart, Michael (2009). Human Rights: Politics and Practice. Oxford University Press.
10.  Freeman, Michael A. (2011). Human Rights: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Polity Press.
11.  Goodhart, Michael (2011). Human Rights in the 21st Century Continuity and Change since 9/11. Palgrave.
12.  Hunt, Lynn (2008). Inventing Human Rights: A History. W. W. Norton & Company, New York.  
13.  Lauren, Paul Gordon. (2011). The Evolution of International Human Rights Visions Seen. University of Pennsylvania Press. http://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/13971.html  
14.  Perry, Michael J. (2000). The Idea of Human Rights Four Inquiries. Oxford UniversityPress. http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Law/PublicInternationalLaw/InternationalHumanRights/?view=usa&ci=9780195138283  
15.  Donnelly, Jack (2003). Universal Human Right in Theory and Practice Cornell Press. http://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/?GCOI=80140100015050
16.  Turner, Brian (2006). Vulnerability and Human Rights. Penn State University Press. http://www.psupress.org/books/titles/0-271-02923-4.html
17.  Wallerstein, Immanuel (2006). European Universalism: The Rhetoric of Power. The New Press. http://thenewpress.com/index.php?option=com_title&task=view_title&metaproductid=1365
18.  Steiner, Henry J. Philip Alston and Ryan Goodman (2007). International Human Rights in Context Law, Politics, Morals. Oxford University Press. http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/he/subject/PoliticalScience/PoliticalTheory/HumanRights/?view=usa&ci=9780199279425
19.  Somers, Margaret (2008). Genealogies of Citizenship.
20.  Mann, Michael (2004). The Dark Side of Democracy. Cambridge University Press.
21.  Falk, Richard (2009). Achieving Human Rights. Routledge.
22.  Beitz, Charles. “What Human Rights Mean.” Daedalus 132 (2003): 36-46.
23.  Waltz, Susan. “Reclaiming and Rebuilding the History of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,” Third World Quarterly 23 (No. 3 2002): 437-448.
24.  Carol Anderson, Eyes Off the Prize: The United Nations and the African American Struggle for Human Rights, 1944-1955 (2003), pp. 271-276.
25.  Clark, Ann Marie. Diplomacy of Conscience: Amnesty International and Changing Human Rights Norms Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001: 3-20; 130.
26.  Keck, Margaret E. and Sikkink, Kathryn. Activists Beyond Borders. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998: 1-29.
  1. Hafner-Burton and Tsutsui (2005) “Human Rights in a Globalizing World: The
Paradox of Empty PromisesIn American Journal of Sociology Vol. 110
(5): 1373-1411.
28.  Reus-Smit, Christian. Human Rights and the Social Construction of Sovereignty. Review of International Studies (2001), 27, 519–538.
29.  BulaƧ, Ali 2000 "The Medina Document" In Liberal Islam: A Sourcebook Kurzman ed. Oxford University Press.
30.  Brysk, Alison. “From Above and Below: Social Movements, the International System, and Human Rights in Argentina.” Comparative Political Studies 26 (October 1993): 259-285.
31.  Etzioni, Amitai. The Normativity of Human Rights Is Self-Evident. Human Rights Quarterly 32 (2010) 187–197.    
33.  Farmer, Paul 2005 "On Suffering and Structural Violence: Social and Economic Rights in a Global Era" In Pathologies of Power (pgs. 29-50).
34.  Hernandez-Truyol, B.E. and Jane Larson (2002) “Both Work and Violence: Prostitution and Human Rights” In Moral Imperialism (pp. 183-211).
35.  Cortyndon, Anna ed. (2007) “Trading Away our Rights: Women Working in
36.  Global Supply Chains, OXFAM International.
37.  Economist (2010) “Gendercide” The Worldwide war on baby girls” Print Edition. March 4. http://www.economist.com/node/15636231
39.  "Women's Rights: Why Not?" NY Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2002/06/18/opinion/women-s-rights-why-not.html 
41.  Cortelyou, Kenny 2009 “Disaster in the Amazon: Dodging Boomerang Suits in
Transnational Human Rights Litigation” In California Law Review 857.
42.  Mertus, Julie. “The Lingua Franca of Diplomacy: Human Rights and the Post-Cold War Presidencies,” excerpt from Bait and Switch: Human Rights and US Foreign Policy (Routledge, 2004): 39-74.
43.  Sikkink, Kathryn. "The Power of Principled Ideas: Human Rights Policies in the United States and Western Europe." In Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions, and Political Change, edited by Judith Goldstein and Robert O. Keohane. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993. 
44.  Okuizumi, Kaora. "Implementing the ODA Charter: Prospects for Linking Japanese Economic Assistance and Human Rights." NYU Journal of International Law and Politics 27 (Winter 1995): 367-408
45.  Japan Foreign Ministry, “Arc of Freedom and Prosperity: Japan's Expanding Diplomatic Horizons" http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/fm/aso/speech0611.html  (also see program for MOFA symposium, 2007, http://www.mofa.go.jp/policyillar/symposium0702.html)
46.  “China Issues Human Rights Record of the US” March 2007. 

Wednesday, November 13, 2013

ISA Human Rights Joint Conference 2014, Istanbul, Turkey

ISA Human Rights Joint Conference 2014, Istanbul, Turkey
http://www.isanet.org/Conferences/HRIstanbul2014.aspx

ISA HR Joint Conference Submissions are Open! 
Submissions are open for the 2014 joint Human Rights conference in Istanbul. 
We're now  accepting paper and panel proposals. This year's conference theme is Human Rights and Change. Check out the Call for more information. We hope to see you there!

Call for Papers: ISA HR Istanbul 2014
ISA-Human Rights, along with the HR sections of IPSA, APSA and the Standing Group on Human Rights and Transition, ECPR, invites paper and panel proposals on any subject related to human rights, for our joint conference in Istanbul. Particularly welcome are submissions related to our 2014 conference theme, Human Rights and Change. 

Please submit your proposals through the ISA submission system. Proposal submissions will open July 15, 2013. The proposal submission deadline is December 1, 2013.

To read more...

Tuesday, November 12, 2013

POLL-Egypt is worst Arab state for women, Comoros best

Thomson Reuters Foundation - Tue, 12 Nov 2013


Visit poll2013.trust.org for full coverage of our expert poll on women’s rights in the Arab world
  • Egypt worst for women's rights in poll of 22 Arab states
  • Iraq more dangerous for women than under Saddam Hussein
  • Small steps in Saudi Arabia but women still second class
  • Syria's war and discriminatory laws curtail women's rights
  • Comoros first for giving women political and economic rights
LONDON, Nov 12 (Thomson Reuters Foundation) - Sexual harassment, high rates of female genital cutting and a surge in violence and Islamist feeling after the Arab Spring uprisings have made Egypt the worst country in the Arab world to be a woman, a poll of gender experts showed on Tuesday.
Discriminatory laws and a spike in trafficking also contributed to Egypt’s place at the bottom of a ranking of 22 Arab states, the Thomson Reuters Foundation survey found.
Despite hopes that women would be one of the prime beneficiaries of the Arab Spring, they have instead been some of the biggest losers, as the revolts have brought conflict, instability, displacement and a rise in Islamist groups in many parts of the region, experts said.


To read more...

Friday, November 1, 2013

A New Book: Theorising Democide: Why and How Democracies Fail

Theorising Democide:
Why and How Democracies Fail

By Mark Chou  

Palgrave, April 2013

The common assumption is that the path to democratisation is, once begun, near impossible to reverse. Particularly where democratic transition has been properly consolidated conventional wisdom and empirical evidence both suggest that no democracy should follow the example of Classical Athens or Germany's Weimar Republic and return to despotism. Starting from the premise that democracies are often deeply implicated in their own downfall, Theorising Democide challenges this conventional view by showing how democratic collapse is symptomatic of the inherent logic of democracy. Democide, in some cases, can thus be understood as a kind of ideological suicide with the tenets and devices of democracy being somehow intrinsic to its own collapse. In other words democide denotes the capacity that democracy has to come undone, to risk its own safety, to take its own life while doing what it was intended to do.

To read more....